{"id":6186,"date":"2026-04-01T12:00:20","date_gmt":"2026-04-01T12:00:20","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/?page_id=6186"},"modified":"2026-04-07T01:14:03","modified_gmt":"2026-04-07T01:14:03","slug":"references","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/testing\/references","title":{"rendered":"References"},"content":{"rendered":"

Preliminary references are included below:<\/p>\n

Guidelines<\/strong><\/p>\n

UK BHIVA and BASHH Guidelines for Adult HIV Testing (2020])
\nhttps:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/HIV-testing-guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
\n
\n

UK Guideline for the use of HIV Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (2021)
\nhttps:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/PEPSE-guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n

BHIVA\/BASHH guidelines on the use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) (2018)
\nhttps:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/PrEP-guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

UK guidelines for the management of sexual and reproductive health of people living with HIV (2008)
\nhttps:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/SRH-guidelines<\/a><\/p>\n

US CDC. Information about HIV testing from the US CDC.
\nhttps:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/testing\/index.html<\/a><\/p>\n

Swiss Statement (on reduced transmission with undetectable viral load):\u00a0<\/em>Vernazza P et al. Les personnes seropositives ne souff rant d\u2019aucune autre MST et suivant un traitment antiretroviral efficie ne transmettent pas le VIH par voie sexuelle. Bull Med Suisses 2008; 89: 165\u201369.
\nhttp:\/\/papamamanbebe.net\/a8238-les-personnes-seropositives-ne-souffrant-d-a.html
\n<\/a>English translation:
\nhttps:\/\/i-base.info\/qa\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/02\/Swiss-Commission-statement_May-2008_translation-EN.pdf<\/a> (PDF)<\/p>\n

HIV Transmission<\/strong><\/h3>\n

Impact of treatment on reducing transmission<\/strong><\/p>\n

Heterosexual:<\/em><\/p>\n

Attia S et al. Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2009. 17; 23(11): 1397-404.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2009\/07170\/Sexual_transmission_of_HIV_according_to_viral_load.13.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Castilla J et al. Effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. JAIDS 2005. 40(1): 96-101.
\nhttp:\/\/scielo.isciii.es\/scielo.php?pid=S1137-66272005000500016&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en<\/a><\/p>\n

Cohen MS et al. HPTN 052 Study Team. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. NEJM 2011. 365(6): 493-505.
\nhttp:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJMoa1105243<\/a><\/p>\n

Donnell D et al. The Partners in Prevention HSV\/HIV Transmission Study Team. Heterosexual HIV-1 transmission after initiation of antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort analysis. Lancet. 2010; 375(9731): 2092-8.
\nhttp:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736%2810%2960705-2\/abstract
\n<\/a>Full text access:
\nhttp:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2922041\/<\/a><\/p>\n

Hughes J et al. Partners in Prevention HSV\/HIV Transmission Study Team. Determinants of Per-act Infectivity of HIV-1 in the Partners in Prevention Study. CROI 2011, Boston, Abstract 135.
\nhttp:\/\/www.retroconference.org\/2011\/Abstracts\/41932.htm<\/a><\/p>\n

Rodger AJ et al for the PARTNER study group. Sexual activity without condoms and risk of HIV transmission in serodifferent couples when the HIV-positive partner is using suppressive antiretroviral therapy. JAMA, 2016;316(2):1-11. DOI: 10.1001\/jama.2016.5148. (12 July 2016). Full free access.
\nhttp:\/\/jama.jamanetwork.com\/article.aspx?doi=10.1001\/jama.2016.5148<\/a><\/p>\n

Rodger AJ et al. Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. Lancet\u00a0<\/i>2019; published online May 2. (Open access)
\nhttp:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)30418-0<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
De Vincenzi I et al. A longitudinal study of HIV Transmission by heterosexual partners. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:341-346.\u00a0DOI: 10.1056\/NEJM199408113310601. (11 August 1994).<\/div>\n
https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJM199408113310601<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Viral load more important than gender:<\/em><\/p>\n

Melo MG et al. Sexual transmission of HIV-1 among serodiscordant couples in Porto Alegre, southern Brazil. Sexually Transmitted Dis. 2008. 35(11): 912-5.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/stdjournal\/Abstract\/2008\/11000\/Sexual_Transmission_of_HIV_1_Among_Serodiscordant.3.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Reynolds SJ et al. HIV-1 transmission among HIV-1 discordant couples before and after the introduction of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2011. 25(4): 473-7.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2011\/02200\/HIV_1_transmission_among_HIV_1_discordant_couples.9.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Gay men:<\/em><\/p>\n

Jin F et al. Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART. AIDS 2010, 24(6): 907\u201391.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/pages\/articleviewer.aspx?year=2010&issue=03270&article=00014&type=fulltext<\/a><\/p>\n

Baggaley RF et al. Infectiousness of HIV-infected homosexual men in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2010. 24(15): 2418-20.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2010\/09240\/Infectiousness_of_HIV_infected_homosexual_men_in.20.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Hallett TB et al. Estimating the risk of HIV transmission from homosexual men receiving treatment to their HIV-uninfected partners. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 2011; 87(1):17-21.
\nhttp:\/\/sti.bmj.com\/content\/87\/1\/17.full<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
\n
\n

Sullivan PS et al. Estimating the proportion of HIV transmissions from main sex partners among men who have sex with men in five US cities. AIDS 23, 1153\u20131162 (2009).
\nhttps:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2009\/06010\/Estimating_the_proportion_of_HIV_transmissions.13.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Wilson DP et al. Infectiousness of HIV-infected men who have sex with men in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2010. 24; 24(15): 2420-1.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2010\/09240\/Infectiousness_of_HIV_infected_men_who_have_sex.21.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Case study where transmission occurred when viral load was undetectable (<50 copies\/mL):<\/em><\/p>\n

St\u00fcrmer M et al.\u00a0Is transmission of HIV-1 in non-viraemic serodiscordant couples possible? Antivir Ther. 2008;13:729-732.
\nhttp:\/\/www.intmedpress.com\/journals\/avt\/abstract.cfm?id=168&pid=88<\/a><\/p>\n

\n

During a treatment interruption<\/strong><\/p>\n

Palich R et al for the VRI02\/ANRS149 LIGHT Vaccine Trial Group. Viral rebound in semen after antiretroviral treatment interruption in an HIV therapeutic vaccine double-blind trial. AIDS\u00a033(2):p 279-284, February 1, 2019.\u00a0|\u00a0DOI:\u00a010.1097\/QAD.0000000000002058
\n<\/span>https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2019\/02010\/Viral_rebound_in_semen_after_antiretroviral.11.aspx<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

PrEP<\/strong><\/p>\n

For PrEP references, including the iPrEX, PROUD and IPERGAY studies, please see this link from the i-Base UK Guide to PrEP (2021).
\nhttps:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/prep\/references<\/a><\/p>\n

Circumcision<\/strong><\/p>\n

Hughes J et al. Partners in Prevention HSV\/HIV Transmission Study Team. Determinants of Per-act Infectivity of HIV-1 in the Partners in Prevention Study. CROI 2011, Boston, Abstract 135.
\nhttp:\/\/www.retroconference.org\/2011\/Abstracts\/41932.htm<\/a><\/p>\n

Bailey RC et al. 2010. The protective effect of adult male circumcision against HIV acquisition is sustained for at least 54 months: results from the Kisumu, Kenya trial. XVIII International AIDS Conference, Vienna, July 18-23. Late breaker poster FRLBC101.
\nhttp:\/\/pag.aids2010.org\/Abstracts.aspx?SID=643&AID=17707<\/a><\/p>\n

Auvert B et al. Impact of male circumcision on the female-to-male transmission of HIV. 3rd IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment, Rio de Janeiro, 2005. Abstract TuOa0402.
\nhttp:\/\/www.iasociety.org\/Default.aspx?pageId=11&abstractId=2177418<\/a><\/p>\n

McCoombe SG et al \u2013 How HIV enters the human penis. XV Intl AIDS Conference, Bangkok. Abstract MoPeA3048. See HIV Treatment Bulletin, August 2004. See HTB report:
\n<\/em>https:\/\/i-base.info\/htb\/8959<\/a><\/p>\n

Gray R et al.\u00a0Keratinization of the adult male foreskin and implications for male circumcision.\u00a0AIDS: 1 June 2010 – Volume 24 – Issue 9 – p 1381.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2010\/06010\/Keratinization_of_the_adult_male_foreskin_and.21.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Minh D et al.\u00a0HIV-1 female-to-male sexual transmission: evaluation of circumcised and uncircumcised penile tissue. 19th International AIDS Conference. 22-27 July 2012, Washington.\u00a0 Oral Abstract MOLBA03.
\nhttp:\/\/pag.aids2012.org\/abstracts.aspx?aid=21033<\/a><\/p>\n

Increased risk of HIV transmission from washing after sex<\/strong><\/p>\n

Makumbi FE et al. Male post-coital penile cleansing and the risk of HIV-acquisition in rural Rakai district, Uganda. Abstract WEAC1LB.
\nhttp:\/\/www.ias2007.org\/pag\/Abstracts.aspx?SID=55&AID=55367.
\n<\/a>http:\/\/library.iasociety.org\/MediaView.aspx?media_id=711<\/a> (slides)
\n<\/a><\/p>\n

Makumbi FE et al. Postcoital penile washing and the risk of HIV acquisition in uncircumcised men.\u00a0AIDS 2016. 30(10);1669\u20131673.\u00a0doi: 10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001097. (19 June 2016)
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2016\/06190\/Postcoital_penile_washing_and_the_risk_of_HIV.17.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

McClelland SR et al. Vaginal washing and increased risk of HIV-1 acquisition among African women: a 10-year prospective study. AIDS 2006, 20:269\u2013273.\u00a0See related HTB report:
\n<\/em>https:\/\/i-base.info\/htb\/2212<\/a><\/p>\n

Condoms<\/strong><\/p>\n

De Vincenzi I et al. A longitudinal study of HIV Transmission by heterosexual partners. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:341-346.\u00a0DOI: 10.1056\/NEJM199408113310601. (11 August 1994).<\/div>\n
https:\/\/www.nejm.org\/doi\/full\/10.1056\/NEJM199408113310601<\/a><\/div>\n

Weller S, Davis K. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database System Rev. 2002;(1): CD003255.
\nhttp:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/14651858.CD003255\/full<\/a><\/p>\n

Gray, J., Prestage, G., Jin, F. et al.<\/i> Condom Failure Among HIV-Negative Men in Serodiscordant Relationships in Australia, Brazil, and Thailand. AIDS Behav<\/i> (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-024-04431-x
\nhttps:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10461-024-04431-x<\/a><\/p>\n

HIV transmission and oral sex<\/strong><\/p>\n

Hawkins DH et al. UK Department of Health. Report of a Working Group of the UK Chief Medical Officers’ Expert Advisory Group on AIDS. Review of the evidence on the risk of HIV transmission associated with oral sex.
\nhttps:\/\/webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk\/20130123205435\/http:\/\/www.dh.gov.uk\/en\/Publicationsandstatistics\/Publications\/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance\/DH_4125483<\/a><\/p>\n

Dillon B et al. Primary HIV infections associated with oral transmission. 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, San Francisco, CA, Jan 30\u2014Feb 2, 2000 (abstract 473).
\nhttp:\/\/retroconference.org\/2000\/Abstracts\/473.htm<\/a><\/p>\n

Hawkins DA et al. Oral sex and HIV transmission. Sex Transm Infect 2001;77:307-308 doi:10.1136\/sti.77.5.307.
\nhttp:\/\/sti.bmj.com\/content\/77\/5\/307.full<\/a><\/p>\n

Rothenberg RB et al.\u00a0Oral transmission of HIV.\u00a0AIDS. 1998 Nov 12;12(16):2095-105.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/1998\/16000\/Oral_transmission_of_HIV.4.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Schacker\u00a0T et al.\u00a0Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection.\u00a0Ann Intern Med\u00a01996;\u00a0125:\u00a0257-264.
\nhttp:\/\/www.annals.org\/content\/125\/4\/257.short<\/a><\/p>\n

Peiperi L et al. HIV inSite. Risk of HIV Infection Through Receptive Oral Sex. UCSF roundtable discussion, 2003.\u00a0HIV inSite.
\nhttp:\/\/hivinsite.ucsf.edu\/InSite?page=pr-rr-05<\/a><\/p>\n

Viral load in breast milk<\/strong><\/p>\n

Semba\u00a0RD et al.\u00a0Human immunodeficiency virus load in breast milk, mastitis, and mother-to\u2010child transmission of human immunodeficiency.\u00a0J Infect Dis\u00a01999;\u00a0180:\u00a093-98.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/180\/1\/93.full<\/a><\/p>\n

Genetics<\/strong><\/p>\n

McLaren PJ \u00a0et al.\u00a0Evaluating the impact of functional genetic variation on HIV-1 control. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, jix470. Published: 09 September 2017.<\/div>\n
https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/infdis\/jix470\u00a0<\/a><\/div>\n

STIs<\/strong><\/p>\n

Most to be added.<\/p>\n

(GUD acquisition associated with HIV and HIV associated with higher HSV viral load):<\/em><\/p>\n

Serwadda D et al. HIV acquisition associated with genital ulcer disease and herpes simplex virus type 2 infection: a nested case-control study in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis 2003;188:1492-7.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/188\/10\/1492.abstract?ijkey=c1be3a8cdc9c40f038389c09db0b999907503b07&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha<\/a><\/p>\n

Vandepitte J et al.\u00a0Prevalence and Correlates of Mycoplasma genitalium Infection Among Female Sex Workers in Kampala, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2012 Jan;205(2):289-96. Epub 2011 Nov 18.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/205\/2\/289.abstract<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Hughes JP et al. Determinants of Per-Coital-Act HIV-1 Infectivity Among African HIV-1\u2013Serodiscordant Couples.\u00a0J Infect Dis. <\/abbr>Volume 205, Issue 3 p. 358-365,\u00a0Jan 2012.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/205\/3\/358.abstract<\/a><\/p>\n

Transmission and viral load<\/strong><\/p>\n

(Model suggesting heterosexual risk of 1% per exposure when semen viral load is 100,000 c\/mL and 0.03% when semen viral load is 1,000 c\/mL):<\/em><\/p>\n

Chakraborty H et al. Viral burden in genital secretions determine male-to-female sexual transmission of HIV-1 a probabilistic empiric model. AIDS 15 621-627, 2001.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2001\/03300\/Viral_burden_in_genital_secretions_determines.12.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

(Higher transmission during seroconversion and early infection):<\/em><\/p>\n

Wawer MJ et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis 2005;191:1403-9.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/191\/9\/1403.full<\/a><\/p>\n

Hayes RJ et al. Amplified HIV Transmission during Early-Stage Infection: rates of transmission per coital act.\u00a0JID Feb 15, 2006
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/193\/4\/604.full<\/a><\/p>\n

Hollingsworth D et al. HIV-1 Transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis. (2008) 198 (5): 687-693.
\nhttp:\/\/jid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/198\/5\/687.abstract<\/a><\/p>\n

Boily M-C et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Inf Dis 9(2)118-129. DOI:\u00a010.1016\/S1473-3099(09)70021-0.\u00a0(February 2009).<\/span>
\nhttps:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/laninf\/article\/PIIS1473-3099(09)70021-0\/fulltext<\/a><\/p>\n

Study reporting differences between viral load in blood compared to semen:<\/em><\/p>\n

Lambert-Niclot S et al. Detection of HIV-1 RNA in seminal plasma samples from treated patients with undetectable HIV-1 RNA in blood plasma on a 2002-2011 survey. AIDS. Concise communication. POST ACCEPTANCE, 29 February 2012 doi: 10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328352ae09
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Abstract\/publishahead\/Detection_of_HIV_1_RNA_in_seminal_plasma_samples.98966.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Number of exposures<\/strong><\/p>\n

(Interesting study in serodifferent heterosexual couples reporting a 10% risk after 10 or fewer contacts but only 23% risk after 2,000 contacts. This highlights that people more susceptible to catching HIV will need very few exposures but that other reasons are not quickly overcome by number of exposures):<\/em><\/p>\n

Downs AM et al. Probability of heterosexual transmission of HIV: relationship to the number of unprotected sexual contacts. JAIDS Hum Retroviruses 1996 11 388-395
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jaids\/Fulltext\/1996\/04010\/Probability_of_Heterosexual_Transmission_of_HIV_.10.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

(Technical but interesting study looking at models for the relative importance of the number of partners vs the number of sex acts):<\/em><\/p>\n

Kaplan EH. Modelling HIV infectivity: Must sex acts be counted?\u201d JAIDS Hum Retroviruses 1990 3 55-61.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jaids\/Abstract\/1990\/01000\/Modeling_HIV_Infectivity__Must_Sex_Acts_be.9.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

(Risk related to HIV prevalence, particularly for gay men in the UK):<\/em><\/p>\n

White PJ et al. Is HIV out of control in the UK? An example of analysing patterns of HIV spreading using incidence-to-prevalence ratio? AIDS. 2006 Sep 11; 20(14):1898-901
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/fulltext\/2006\/09110\/is_hiv_out_of_control_in_the_uk__an_example_of.17.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

HIV tests and testing<\/strong><\/h3>\n

Zhu W et al. Real-World Positive Predictive Value and False Positive Rates of Laboratory-Based HIV Antigen\/Antibody Testing by Age and Sex \u2014 United States, 2019\u20132024. JAIDS, December 19, 2025. DOI: 10.1097\/QAI.0000000000003823.
\nhttps:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jaids\/abstract\/9900\/real_world_positive_predictive_value_and_false.773.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Spivak AM, Sydnor ERM, Blankson JN, Gallant JE. Seronegative HIV-1 infection: a review of the
\nliterature. AIDS 2010; 24:1407\u20131414.
\nhttps:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/abstract\/2010\/06190\/seronegative_hiv_1_infection__a_review_of_the.2.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Chia-Yu Chiu et al. False-Reactive Fourth-Generation Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing in Cancer Patients, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 78(3); 674\u2013680. 15 March 2024,
\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/ciad608<\/a><\/p>\n

HPA Midas test reports (for results on individual manufacturers tests):
\nhttp:\/\/www.hpa-midas.org.uk\/reports\/reports_hiv.asp<\/a><\/p>\n

Branson B. The Future of HIV Testing. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes:\u00a015 December 2010 – Volume 55 – Issue – pp S102-S105
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jaids\/Fulltext\/2010\/12152\/The_Future_of_HIV_Testing.11.aspx#P38<\/a><\/p>\n

(Study describing how a 4th generation Ag\/AB test is evaluated and the impact on recuing the testing window compared to a third generation antibody only test):<\/em><\/p>\n

Sickinger E et al.\u00a0Multicenter Evaluation of a New, Automated Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay for Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Specific Antibodies and Antigen.\u00a0Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Jan. 2004, p. 21\u201329 Vol. 42, No. 1 0095-1137\/04.
\nhttp:\/\/jcm.asm.org\/content\/42\/1\/21.full<\/a><\/p>\n

(4th vs 3rd generation tests):<\/em><\/p>\n

Van Binsbergen J et al.\u00a0Improved performance of Seroconversion with a 4th generation HIV Antigen\/Antibody assay.\u00a0Journal of Virological Methods 82 (1999) 77\u201384.
\nhttp:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0166093499000865<\/a><\/p>\n

Example of false-positive results:
\n<\/em>Chiu C-Y et al., False-reactive fourth-generation HIV testing in cancer patients, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2023;, ciad608, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/ciad608<\/a><\/p>\n

Window period after exposure for viral load and antibody responses<\/strong><\/p>\n

Busch MP et al. Time course of viremia and antibody Seroconversion following human immunodeficiency virus exposure. American Journal of Medicine 1997; 102:117-124.
\nhttp:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0002934397000776<\/a><\/p>\n

Feibig EW et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS: 5 September 2003 – Volume 17 – Issue 13 – pp 1871-1879
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Abstract\/2003\/09050\/Dynamics_of_HIV_viremia_and_antibody.5.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

(Early study \u2013 using early tests \u2013 reporting 95% of seroconversion within 6 months):<\/em><\/p>\n

Horsburgh CR Jr et al. Duration of human immunodeficiency virus infection before detection of antibody. Lancet 1989; 2: 637-40.
\nhttp:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/journals\/lancet\/article\/PIIS0140-6736%2889%2990892-1\/abstract<\/a><\/p>\n

Lindback S et al. Viral dynamics of primary HIV-1 infection and duration of follow-up after HIV exposure. Karolinska Institute Primary HIV Infection Study Group. AIDS. 2000 Oct 20;14(15):2333-9, 22)
\nhttp:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/11089616<\/a><\/p>\n

Reimer L et al. Absence of detectable antibody in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinical Infect Dis. 1997 Jul; 25(1): 98-100.
\nhttp:\/\/cid.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/25\/1\/98.short<\/a><\/p>\n

FDA letter for viral load to be used \u201cas an aid\u201d to diagnose HIV in acute or early infection. 04 October 2006.
\nhttp:\/\/www.fda.gov\/BiologicsBloodVaccines\/BloodBloodProducts\/ApprovedProducts\/LicensedProductsBLAs\/BloodDonorScreening\/InfectiousDisease\/ucm149928.htm<\/a><\/p>\n

(Review of rare cases where people test HIV antibody negative but whose symptoms are confirmed to be HIV-related by a positive PCR viral load test): <\/em><\/p>\n

Spivak AM et al. Seronegative HIV-1 infection: a review of the literature. AIDS:\u00a019 June 2010 – Volume 24 – Issue 10 – p 1407\u20131414.
\nhttp:\/\/journals.lww.com\/aidsonline\/Fulltext\/2010\/06190\/Seronegative_HIV_1_infection__a_review_of_the.2.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Social factors relating to increased risk<\/h3>\n

Thousands of studies have been published on social determinants of HIV over the last 40 years. These are just examples.<\/p>\n

Jones M et al. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behaviors Associated with HIV Acquisition Among Adult Sexual Minority Men in the United States. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes ():10.1097\/QAI.0000000000003875, March 31, 2026. | DOI: 10.1097\/QAI.0000000000003875
\nhttps:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jaids\/abstract\/9900\/adverse_childhood_experiences_and_behaviors.823.aspx<\/a><\/p>\n

Edwards AE, Collins CB Jr. Exploring the influence of social determinants on HIV risk behaviors and the potential application of structural interventions to prevent HIV in women. J Health Dispar Res Pract. 2014 Winter;7(SI2):141-155.
\nhttps:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC4848455\/<\/a><\/p>\n

Interpreting risk, popular medicine reporting and statistics<\/strong><\/h3>\n

Gardner D. Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear. Virgin Books, 2009.<\/p>\n

Goldacre D. Bad Science. Fourth Estate, 2008.<\/p>\n

Petri A and Sabin C. Medical Statistics at a Glance. Wiley-Blackwell, 3rd edition,\u00a0 2009.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Preliminary references are included below: Guidelines UK BHIVA and BASHH Guidelines for Adult HIV Testing (2020]) https:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/HIV-testing-guidelines UK Guideline for the use of HIV Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (2021) https:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/PEPSE-guidelines BHIVA\/BASHH guidelines on the use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) (2018) https:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/PrEP-guidelines …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"parent":5467,"menu_order":48,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"page-guides.php","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-6186","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6186","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=6186"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6186\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":19166,"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6186\/revisions\/19166"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/5467"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/i-base.info\/guides\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6186"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}